Examining the Foundation of Islamic Organisational Citizenship Behaviour in Jordanian Organisations

The purpose of this paper is to examine the role that religion plays in the working lives of Muslim employees, by exploring the influences of Islamic values on employees Organisational Citizenship Behaviour. This is a largely quantitative study conducted in Jordanian organisations. The study introduces a theoretical model drawing parallels between Organisational Citizenship Behaviour and Islamic Work Ethics. The participants, comprising of employees of Jordanian public and private sectors, have been randomly invited to express their views on the possible penetration of Islamic values in the workplace. A Partial Least Squares approach alongside a bootstrapping technique was used to analyse the data. The validity of the measurement model was tested using the Fornell and Larcker criterion. Findings indicate that Islamic values do influence the citizenship behaviour, organisational commitment and loyalty to the organisation of employees. Motivated by religion employees are more likely to adopt discretionary citizenship-alike behaviours in the workplace and be loyal to their organisation. The scope of this study is limited by its primary focus of developing an Islamic perspective within the domain of Organisational Citizenship Behaviour, which utilises the Islamic Work Ethics framework rather than being grounded in Islamic holy texts. This paper not only provides a useful insight into the link between religious motivation, citizenship behaviour, and organisational commitment and loyalty, but also notes the influence of religion in the workplace.


Introduction
The aim of this study is to develop a greater understanding of how religious values affect Organisational Citizenship Behaviour. To a great extent, religion defines a person's identity and may facilitate group cohesion. Religion is sometimes able to unite people coming from different ethnic and linguistic origins.
The Qur'an encourages Muslims to work hard and considers laziness and idleness to be a manifestation of lack of faith. In the Islamic world, loyalty manifests as two contradictory qualities: religious identity on one hand and cultural identity with a tribal group on the other (Ali and Al-Kazemi, 2006). For that reason, organisational commitment in a Muslim-majority country may be different compared to a non-Muslim country.  (Alhyasat, 2012), and in Malaysia (Kamil et al., 2014). Although there is a growing body of knowledge regarding Islamic Work Ethics and Organisational Citizenship Behaviour, only a few empirical studies have specifically explored these concepts in the context of Jordan. Alhyasat (2012), for instance, studied the role of Islamic Work Ethics in developing Organisational Citizenship Behaviour at the Jordanian Press Foundation. However, quite limited conclusions have been drawn due to a lack of clarity in measurements of Islamic Work Ethics and Organisational Citizenship Behaviour. In particular, it is not clear, what the differences between Islamic Work Ethics and Organisational Citizenship Behaviour are. Do these differences complement each other or not? Furthermore, such dimensions as "sportsmanship" and "teamwork" (see Alhyasat, 2012, p. 147) are somewhat in overlap or not. This lack of clarity calls for examination of these concepts in greater details. This paper contributes in two ways to unravelling how Islam shapes employee behaviour and relevant managerial practices. First, the research respondents come from diverse backgrounds, an aspect that differs from the study of Alhyasat (2012). Second, 484 respondents completed the survey which far exceeds that of Alhyasat (2012) by the level of details and number of responses. Therefore, our approach has potential to be insightful.

Overview of Organisational Citizenship Behaviour
The underlying concept that has inspired the scholarly work on Organisational Citizenship Behaviour can be traced back to the seminal work of Katz in 1964, which identified work behaviours that are essential for the functioning of an organisation: dependable role performance and "innovative and spontaneous behaviours". Based on the work of Katz, Smith et al. (1983) proposed the concept of Organisational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB). Using society as an analogy, Smith et al. (1983) describe citizenship as "spontaneous charitable acts to others" (p. 654) that is aimed at Since the original work of Smith et al published in 1983, numerous researchers have expanded the empirical base of OCB, and many of these studies have been focused on identifying its potential antecedents (Podsakoff et al., 2000) and influences (Alhyasat, 2012;Ali and Al-Kazemi, 2006;Tufail et al., 2017). Despite the growing interest in OCB, there has been a lack of consensus about the dimensions of OCB (Podsakoff, 2000). In 1983, Smith et al proposed two dimensions: Altruism and Generalised Compliance. While Altruism refers to "behaviour that is directly and intentionally aimed at helping a specific person in face-to-face situations" (Smith et al., 1983: 657), Generalised Compliance refers to "a more impersonal form of conscientiousness that does not provide immediate aid to any one specific person, but rather is indirectly helpful to others involved in the system" (ibid). While these two dimensions differ in emphasis, both of them refer to work related behaviours that go well beyond the typical requirements of duty and are commonly referred to "extra-role behaviour" In 1988, Organ deconstructed the dimension of Generalised Compliance, and added additional dimensions to OCB: Courtesy, Conscientiousness, Civic Virtue, and Sportsmanship. While the definition of altruism remained much as it was, the additional dimensions refer to a more detailed account of citizenship behaviour (see Table 1 for the summary of these dimensions). also argue that altruism and courtesy fall under the category of "Helping Behaviour". Table 1 illustrates the OCB dimensions advocated by the mentioned authors.

Islamic Work Ethics
To a certain extent, the OCB dimensions discussed share similar concepts with Islamic Work Ethics, as illustrated in the Table 2. Benevolence (Ihsaan) Richardson et al. (2014: 78) described the concept of benevolence in Islam as "kind behaviour to others for the love of God"; and when the term extends to the workplace, it means to "strive for excellence in work and to maintain good behaviour" (ibid). In Islam, work is considered to be a virtue because it sustains self-reliance, and more importantly, it serves others (Ali and Al-Kazemi, 2006) or as Ali and Al-Owaihan (2008: 14) maintain "Serving others and the community is considered an integral part of IWE". Ihsaan also means perfection or perform tasks perfectly (Aldulaimi, 2016).

Respect (Ihtiram) and Generosity (Karam)
In addition to benevolence, Islamic teaching binds its followers to be courteous to others, and also to be just and generous (

Social cohesion (Ummah)
Contrary to western materialism, Islam seeks to create and maintain a balance between the economic and social dimensions of society. Such stewardship is "based on the pursuit of good, equity, solidarity, cooperation, mutual help and sharing, and on the proscription of evil, individualism, excess and exploitation of the weak or of those in precarious or vulnerable situations" (Bouslama and Lahrichi, 2017; : 719). A central part of Islamic jurisprudence -Muamalat "defines the conduct of economic activities", which "ultimately lays down the rules for commercial, financial and banking system" (Askari et al., 2015: 46). In other words, Muamalat not only forms the foundation of Islamic economics, but also the social and economic repercussions of action as well as the rationale of prohibitions. For instance, the prohibition of interest on loans (riba) and the profit sharing system (Mudarabah) promulgated by Islam goes against the basic tenets of Capitalism. As noted by Askari et al. (2015: 45), the overall aim of Islamic law is "to promote the welfare of humankind". This is demonstrated, for instance, in the obligatory alms or religious tax (zakat). Muslims are obliged to pay zakat (customarily 2.5% of total income and wealth) as a means to purify their wealth and promote a more equitable redistribution of wealth amongst members of the Islamic community (Ummah). In short, it is a virtue to serve the community or society as a whole (Ali and Al-Owaihan, 2008) for the achievement of socio-economic equality (Aldulaimi, 2016).

Strive for excellence (Itqan)
While adhering to the Islamic Work Ethic is obligatory, in addition committing to excellence and quality of work (itqan) has a spiritual connotation (Ishak and Osman,

The Influence of Islamic Values on Contemporary Management
Existing business and management research examining the influence of Islamic values on contemporary management practices are quite substantial and diverse, including corporate social responsibility ( 2017) found that Islamic Work Ethics act as a foundation for employee engagement that triggers discretionary Organisational Citizenship Behaviours. Focusing on the relationship between HR practices and project success, Khan and Rasheed (2015) found that Islamic Work Ethics play a significant moderating role in employee recruitment and selection.
Despite the growing interest to the influence of Islam on management practices, researchers found that practitioners perceive religion as a private matter and personal commitment (Khan and Rasheed 2015) and they do not translate their understanding of Islamic principles into practice (Ali Aribi and Arun, 2015). Some Muslims lack the interest to develop a thorough understanding of their religion (Hussain, 2007), and the Holy Quran is often memorised and cited without an in-depth understanding of its meaning (Rana and Malik, 2016). This naturally creates a gap between theology and practice, drawing attention to the need to examine the influence of Islam on management at both individual and organisational levels.

Theoretical model
In Islam, work is regarded as both responsibility and duty. Performing one's employment duties with excellence is an act of worship as God sees all.

Results
The latent variable Islamic perspective has been affected by each of the latent variables: Individual level values, Team-centred and Organisation-centred values. These relationships were studied by using Partial Least Squares (PLS-SME).
SmartPLS software was used to estimate and study the model of association between the mentioned variables. Figure 1 shows the PLS-SME path model with 21 latent variables. The structural model (Figure 1) was built to discover the extent to which the latent variables -Individual level values, Team-centred and Organisation-centred valueshave the greatest effect on the latent variable Islamic perspective. The indicator variables for the exogenous constructs (A1 to A4, B1 to B6 and C1 to C6) were modelled as reflective measures. The first order latent variables were also modelled as reflective measures.
A two-step approach for assessing Outer and Inner variables, using data analysis PLS-PEM, should be used before supporting the model because it would provide a solid basis to indicate the model's applicability.

Assessment of the measurements model (Outer model):
to check on the construct validity two important components should be examined -convergent and discriminate validity.
Convergent validity: PLS-SEM algorithms (SmartPLS) were used to estimate the convergent validity for partial regression models. Factor analysis was used with the first order to transfer the indicators to latent variables for Individual Level, Teamcentred and Organisation-centred values.
Individual Level variables: According to factor analysis, Figure 2 shows that the seventeen indicators reduced for latent variables (A1, A2, A3 and A4). No indicators needed to be removed from the model, because the outer loadings are more than 0.70. Hair Jr, Hult, Ringle, & Sarstedt, (2016);and Hulland, (1999) obtained weaker outer loadings (< 0.70) in Social Science studies, especially when newly developed scales were used (see Table 1). A1 is the most important latent variable that affected the Individual. The outer loading value is 0.926 then A2, A3 and finally A4 (the outer loadings were 0.744, 0.742 and 0.491 respectively).   Table 4 shows that the outer loadings are more than 0.67, and that all of them are statistically significant (P<0.01).
The values for composite reliability of latent variables were between 75.5% for latent variable A4 and 92.7% for A1. These values were accepted, since the values for composite reliability should be in the 70% and 95% range.
As shown in Table 4, the values of average variance extracted were more than 0.50. They were between 50.7% for the latent variable A4 and 64.4% for A1. Thus, the AVE>0.50 suggests adequate convergent validity for these variables (Fornell & Larcker, 1981b;Hair Jr et al., 2016). While the loading variables were higher than 0.70, the composite reliability values were between 0.70 and 0.95, and the values of average variance extracted were more than 0.50. Therefore, we can depend on the convergent validity of these variables.
Team-centred values: the number of variables is reduced from 29 variables to 7 latent variables by the use of factor analysis. Figure 3 shows that two indicators can be removed from the model, because their outer loadings are less than 0.70 (Hair et al., 2016;Hulland, 1999).
The indicators b11 and b12 had to be removed from the model. An estimate of the convergent validity using SmartPLS was made after the indicators were removed, as shown in Table 5.

Examining the foundation of Islamic Organisational Citizenship Behaviour in Jordanian organisations
International Journal of Management and Applied Research, 2022, Vol. 9, No. 1 -33 -   The values for composite reliability of the latent variables were between 79.8% for latent variable B7 and 91.6% for B5. These values were accepted as they fall in the range between 70% and 95%.
As shown in Table 5, the values for average variance extracted were between 54.4% for the latent variable B2 and 67.7% for B6. The loading variables were higher than 0.70, the composite reliability values were between 0.70 and 0.95, and the values of average variance extracted were more than 0.50. Therefore, we can depend on the convergent validity of these variables.

Organisation-centred values:
Factor Analysis was used to reduce the number of variables from 31 to 6 latent variables. Figure 4 shows that the indicator c6 should be removed from the model, because the outer loading is less than 0.70 (Hair Jr, Hult, Ringle, & Sarstedt, 2016; Hulland, 1999). Table 6 shows that the outer loadings are more than 0.70, and that all of them are statistically significant (P<0.01). The values for composite reliability of latent variables were between 80.1% for latent variable C4 and 93% for C1; hence, these values were accepted as they fall in the range between 70% and 95%.

Figure 4: Application of Factor Analysis to the grouped variables of Organisationalcentred values
The values for average variance extracted were accepted because they were between 50.2% for the latent variable C4 and 67.6% for C6 (more than 50%). Thus, the loading variables were higher than 0.70, the composite reliability values were between 0.70 and 0.95, and the values of average variance extracted were more than 0.50. Therefore, we can depend on the convergent validity of these variables.  The assessment of the structural model (Inner model) comprises of five tests: hypotheses test with bootstrapping¸ coefficient of determination R2, Cohen's f2, predictive relevance Q2, and goodness of fit of the model.

Hypotheses test with Bootstrapping
There was a significant relationship between the latent variables (P<0.01). All latent variables had a positive relationship except the relationship between Team and B5 and the relationship between Team and B7. Thus, B5 and B7 had a negative influence on Team. The latent variables, Individual, Organisational and Team had a positive significant association with Islamic Perspective (Table 7).  (1988) suggested that the value of R 2 for endogenous latent variables above 26% should be considered as substantial; a value between 13% and 26% should be considered as moderate and less than 2% weak. In accordance with Cohen (1988), the coefficients of determination in our model were highly substantial between the endogenous latent variables that were more than 26%. The determination coefficient between the latent variables Islamic Perspective and Individual level values was 72.7%. The proportion of variation of 87.8% in the latent Organisation-centred variable and 80.4% in the latent variable Team-centred values is explained by the latent variable of Islamic Perspective ( Table  2). The determination coefficients were moderate between Team and B7 (21.9%) and between Individual and A4 (24.1%). According to the determination coefficient, we can say that the order of latent variables that had influenced on Islamic Perspective was: Organisation-centred, Team-centred and Individual level variables.

Effect Size f 2
The effect size for each path model can be determined by calculating Cohen's f 2 , where f 2 indicates the relative effect of particular exogenous latent variables on endogenous latent variables by means of change in the R 2 . The values of f 2 for that model were higher than 0.36, so the values of f 2 are considered as having large effect size for all latent variables, except the value of f 2 between Team-centred and B7 (0.281) variables which was medium effect size.

Predictive relevance Q 2
The suggested approach to test predictive relevance with PLS-SME is the blindfolding procedure. We were only concerned with the total effect on the endogenous latent variables. When the values of Q 2 are greater than zero the claim that this model has adequate ability to predict is supported. Table 8 shows that the value of Q 2 was between 0.51 for latent variable A1 and 0.116 for latent variable A4 and all values of Q 2 were greater than zero. These results provide clear support for the model's predictive relevance regarding the endogenous latent variables.

Goodness of Fit
Goodness of fit of the model (GOF) is calculated as the geometric mean of both AVE and R 2 . GOF is used to account on the study model at both levels -measurement and structural models -with focus on the overall performance of the model (Chin, 2010; Henseler & Sarstedt, 2013). It is expressed by the equation:

GOF =
In respect to our model: It can be concluded from the value of GOF (0.557) that the GOF model of the study is large enough (0.557>0. 36 The final model with all corresponding values is provided in Figure 5.

Discussion
In this study, we examine the influence of religion on citizenship behaviour. Discretionary behaviours at work are often motivated by personal belief and religious values; these behaviours are extended towards colleagues and other organisational members. This study found that religious motivation is a significant predictor of Organisational Citizenship Behaviour and loyalty. Our findings highlight the importance of individual level values, antecedents and outcomes to better understand how differences between teams in OCB are developed and what their consequences are. The results contribute to the study of organization and human resources management literature in several respects.
This study seeks to examine organisational citizenship behaviour from the Islamic perspective by investigating the ways in which Islamic teachings shape and have impact on professional ethics and work behaviour at individual, team, and organisational levels. Discretionary behaviours at work are often motivated by personal belief and religious values; there behaviours are extended towards colleagues and other organisational members. The respondents of this study actively abide by specific Islamic moral guidelines concerning citizenship behaviour, namely advocating high moral standards (Da'wah) and removal of harm (Raf'al haraj). They also consciously abide by the Islamic teachings while interacting with their colleagues and striving to improve the organisation they work for. The respondents in this study practice the values of Islamic work ethics as portrayed in the Quran which enables them to perform better in their professional life.
The Islamic worldview seems to affect organisational citizenship behaviour in Jordan as reflected by the respondents' perception. This result is supported by previous empirical studies that examined Islamic Work Ethics and its impacts on organisational loyalty (Ali and Al-Kazemi, 2006) and employee engagement (Tufail et al., 2017). The finding of this study also suggests that people who have strong religious beliefs also committed to their organisation, even though they may not agree with certain organisational policies. Those respondents who scored high on Islamic Spirituality (scale derived from Kamil et al., 2015) also tended to be more committed to their organisation and agreed with the statements such as "Even though I may not be happy with my organisation's policies, I do protect the organization's resources". It could be a case that religious beliefs and Islamic teachings make workers more willing to take action for the benefits of others and organisation as a whole. This finding is in line with earlier research by suggesting that Islamic principles not only relate to organisational loyalty and commitment (Ali and Al-Kazemi, 2006) but also discretionary behaviours at work (Tufail et al., 2017).

Conclusion
The results demonstrate that Islamic moral values do affect Organisational Citizenship Behaviour and loyalty. Islam motivates its followers to exhibit righteous conduct so that they will be rewarded and honoured in the life hereafter (Tufail et al., 2017). This study proved that Islamic principles are a basis for religious motivation that triggers citizenship behaviours and loyalty in the workplace.
This research examined the impact of religious motivation and citizenship behaviour on loyalty. Based on the findings of this research, this study recommends the following to management and HR practitioners. First, HR personnel and managers should consider other relevant issues such as person-organisation fit and personalityjob fit during the process of recruitment and selection. While it might seem logical to recruit more religiously motivated individuals since they display high levels of citizenship behaviour and loyalty; however, this is not strongly recommended here. Factors such as the work environment and peer influence might have greater impact on the development of religiously motivated workers over time. A newcomer to the organisation may be eager to fit in to the organisation and behave accordingly. Arguably, however, an employee may feel coerced into engaging in activities that they do not agree with; and as a result, they may be eager to leave the organisation and work for an organisation which shares their religious belief and moral values. For that reason, it is more important to attract and retain qualified job-seekers who are in good match with organisational goals and culture.
Second, organisations should be willing to accept employee's religion and recognise workplace spirituality. At the team level, this might include activities like group prayer or moments of silence before meetings; at corporate level, this could include setting organisational goals that have a strong sense of religious values, giving time off for spiritual development, or providing meditation rooms. Religious rituals enhance social cohesion and give a sense of belonging (Foster and Fenwick, 2015), and thus promoting shared rituals would enhance intra-organisational unity.
Third, supervisors or line managers can also play a large role in promoting citizenship behaviour as well as encouraging an increase of the levels of organisational commitment and loyalty. Managers or supervisors should find ways to help their subordinates feel more supported, especially in achieving career goals and spiritual development. On the other hand, employees should also seek relationships with their supervisors and/or managers in ways that would improve their performance and job satisfaction. In the leadership literature, an effective leader-follower relationship is characterised by a high degree of mutual trust, respect, and reciprocal influence (Northouse, 2013).

Research limitations and future research
The results of this study give a snapshot of the religious motivation, citizenship behaviour, and loyalty of Jordanian workers in years 2017 and 2018, nearly a decade after the financial crisis of 2008. It is unknown whether economic factors affect religious commitment, particularly in economic recessions. Furthermore, the sample for this study included only employees in Jordan, limiting the scope for generalised results for all types of employees. Future research could compare citizenship behaviours in different national contexts (such as Muslim-majority country vs. Muslim-minority country) in order to examine the differences in terms of religious motivation, loyalty, and citizenship behaviour in different contexts.
This study employed a quantitative research paradigm to study the association between motivation, citizenship behaviour, and loyalty. Future research could explore possible related variables into the theoretical model, namely person-organisation fit and national culture. This could allow a more complete picture regarding organisational and national influences to citizenship behaviours.  A1  A2  A3  A4  B1  B2  B3  B4  B5  B6  B7  C1  C2  C3  C4  C5  C6  a7